Chlorophyll primarily absorbs wavelength that fall under the ultraviolet spectrum. Red algae contain chlorophyll a, chlorophyll d, and phycobilins, while brown algae contain chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, fucoxanthin, and xanthophylls while green algae contain chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and xanthophylls. It sorts particles based on physical properties such as fluorescence What are the characteristics of diatoms? They capture light energy, which is then passed on to chlorophylls during photosynthesis. The binding sites of the PBs to the conserved cysteines within the PBPs can be roughly separated into two groups. Tiwari, in Cyanobacteria, 2019. PC trimers contain three additional PBs at position β155 which is on the periphery of the trimeric ring. We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. A laser-based, biophysical technology employed in cell counting, by suspending cells in a stream of fluid and passing them by an electronic detection apparatus. What are Phycocyanin and Phycoerythrin? Phycobilins have a relative molecular mass of 586. The probable reason for the enhanced respiration might be the decoupling of respiratory electron transport chain that causes the reduction in ATPase activity and increase in thylakoid pH gradient (Mohapatra et al., 1997). All Rights Reserved, The Evolutionary Development of Multicellular Organisms, Genetic Engineering Advantages & Disadvantages. Pesticide stress also enhances the respiratory O2 consumption in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. Supplement ‘Unlike any other flagellate algae, they contain phycobilins as accessory photosynthetic pigments, as do red algae and cyanobacteria.’ More example sentences ‘It is a fundamental metabolic pathway needed for biosynthesis of cytochromes, chlorophylls, phycobilins, and the corrin nucleus of vitamin B 12.’ They occur only in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta. But because it can decrease oxygen levels in the culture, it can be important for hydrogen production (Miyake, 1998; Zhu et al., 2008; Masojidek et al., 2013; Oncel, 2013; Torzillo and Seibert, 2013). Multicellularity led to the evolutio.. [ fī′kō-bī ′lĭn ] Any of a class of water-soluble, mostly red, orange, and blue pigments found in cyanobacteria and red algae. In animals and fungi the biosynthesis of ALA proceeds along the so called C-4 pathway, while in Chl biosynthesis it is the C-5 pathway which begins with a reduction of glutamic acid (Glu) to glutamate 1-semialdehyde, followed by its transamination to ALA (Beale, 2006). Balkrishna Tiwari, ... D.N. What are the main pigments of Brown algae? Inside the cells of these organisms, the phycobilins collect light energy from the sun and pass this energy to the primary pigment, which is the chlorophyll. The other main group of accessory pigments in photosynthesis is the phycobilins. Two types of POR exist, a light-dependent POR (LPOR), which occurs only in angiosperms, and a light-independent POR (DPOR), which is found in most other photosynthetic organisms, i.e., in cyanobacteria and phototrophic bacteria, gymnosperms, algae, mosses and ferns. Chlorophyll a is the most important one, and the rest are therefore termed as accessory pigments. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. During respiration, the CO2-fixing Rubisco, which actually has the ability to bind to both O2 and CO2, acts as an oxygenase. The PBS contains only one type of chromophore, the linear tetrapyrrole product of the oxidation of heme – the PB. attaches the algae to rocks. Thus, the protective role of carotenoids under pesticide stress was evident from the results. 5-8). Phycourobilin together with phycoerythrobilin forms a different type of phycoerythrin that also absorbs between 500 and 565 nm. Although it is clear that there exists a direct route for excitation energy transfer to photosystem II (PSII), studies have shown that some phycobilisome excitation also ends up in photosystem I (PSI). The information available in the database is very useful to the researchers interested in natural or artificial PBPs which have potential biotechnological applications (Bretaudeau et al., 2013). Phycobilins occur covalently bound to proteins; that is, they are the chromophores for phycobiliproteins. The condensation of two ALA molecules, catalyzed by ALA dehydratase, yields a monopyrrole porphobilinogen, four molecules of which, in a reaction catalyzed by PBG deaminase, form a linear tetrapyrrole 1-hydroxymethylbilane. Next to the antioxidant components commonly found in other plants, some microalgae produce specific types of antioxidants such as the phycobilin proteins phycocyanin in cyanobacteria (Benedetti et al., 2004; Huang et al., 2007; Thangam et al., 2013; Yoshikawa and Belay, 2008) and phycoerythrin in rhodophytes and cyanobacteria (Huang et al., 2007). When phycoerythrobilin is protein bound, it forms one type of phycoerythrin protein that absorbs between 500 and 565 nm. CyanoLyase (http://cyanolyase.genouest.org/) is a manually curated repository of phycobilin lyases and related proteins. this group of algae is referred to as the dusky plants. Koen Goiris, ... Luc De Cooman, in Handbook of Marine Microalgae, 2015. The four phycobilin chromophores shown in Figure 6 illustrate the structural variations that occur for these molecules. If New Zealand has lots of unique animals, it's also got a whole lot of unique plants. Making a living from light energy is a double-edged sword — it means being constantly exposed to a source energy that can be harmful. Phycoerythrobilin has fewer double bonds in conjugation than does phycocyanobilin, so its λmax occurs at shorter wavelengths (Fig. The phycobilins are especially efficient at absorbing red, orange, yellow, and green light, wavelengths that are not well absorbed by chlorophyll a. The esterification of the C-173 propionic acid side chain with an activated (di-phosphorylated) phytol by Chl synthase constitutes the last step in Chl a biosynthesis. Phycobilin. Definition The content on this website is for information only. [Data are from Ó hEocha (1965); used by permission.]. Phycobilins are light-harvesting pigments found in cyanobacteria, but they are not present in higher plants. Phycobilins are water-soluble pigments, and are therefore found in the cytoplasm, or in the stroma of the chloroplast. Phycobilins are structurally related to mammalian bile pigments, and they are unique among photosynthetic pigments in being covalently bound to proteins (phycobiliproteins). fucus. The first key precursor of the tetrapyrroles is δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). phycobilins: Red and blue accessory pigments found in certain photosynthetic organisms. Mohapatra et al. When three monomers form a dimer, the α84 PB of one subunit approaches the β84 PB on a second subunit that belongs to an adjacent monomer (Adir, 2005; Marx et al., 2014). Chlorophylls: These are the most important pigments involved in the basic photochemical … Recently, a small number of highly red-shifted PB have been found to become more planar and extend the strength of CDB further either due to the protein surrounding (Peng et al., 2014) or due to the lack of covalent bonding to the protein (Xu et al., 1857). Phycobilin definition: any of a class of red or blue-green pigments found in the red algae and cyanobacteria | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples (Mohapatra et al., 1997). 5-8). Anthocyanin, major class of red to blue flavonoid pigments that are extensively represented in plants. An inhibition of photosynthesis extensively reduced the production of O2. Inside the cells of these organisms, the phycobilins collect light energy from the sun and pass this energy to the primary pigment, which is the chlorophyll. The potential HVABs that can be derived from microalgae through genetic engineering will provide leads for their commercial development and optimize product quality requirements and assurance, and along with the legal and regulatory environment, ultimately provide an efficient microalgae-based biorefinery process. For example, phycoerythrobilin has seven double bonds in the main conjugated system and absorbs maximally in the green region of the spectrum; phycocyanobilin has nine such double bonds and its λmax occurs in the red region (see the structures of these compounds in Fig. The isoprenoid side chains are derived from isopentenyl-pyrophosphate (IPP) or dimethylallyl-pyrophosphate (DMAPP), which are principally synthesized via the cytoplasmic mevalonic acid or the plastidial methylerythritol phosphate pathway (Lange, Rujan, Martin, & Croteau, 2000; Rohmer, 1999). Chl a (or Chlide a) seems to be the precursor of all other types of Chls in those organisms that carry out oxygenic photosynthesis. Bright light causes the formation of singlet oxygen (1O2) through photo-oxidation reactions. Phycoerythrobilin plus the protein to which it is covalently attached is called phycoerythrin.1 Phycoerythrin is soluble in aqueous solutions, so we can obtain absorption spectra for it under conditions similar to those in vivo. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. IPP and DMPP condense to geranyl-PP (two C5 units), farnesyl-PP (three C5 units) and geranylgeranyl-PP (four C5 units), the intermediate which is then reduced to phytyl-PP (Masuda & Fujita, 2008). The next intermediate, protoporphyrinogen (protogen) IX, formed in an oxidative decarboxylation catalyzed by coproporphyrinogen oxidase, is then converted to PPIX in the presence of protogen IX oxidase. See also: Multicellular organisms evolved. (D) The structure of the entire Phycobilisome from the red algae G. pacifica as determined by cryo-EM (PDB code 5Y6P). Chlorophyll is the major light-absorbing pigment within the chloroplast of photoautotrophs, such as higher plants. Pigments are molecules that absorb specific wavelengths (energies) of light and reflect all others. 4-15). Ø Phycobilins are water soluble pigments Ø Phycobilins are always bonded with some water soluble proteins called phycobiliproteins Ø They are blue and red in colour Ø They are present in Cyanophyceae and Red algae • actually called bacillariophyta 1(A). 4-15), and not in a closed porphyrin ring, as is the case for the chlorophylls (e.g., Fig. In the light-dependent conversion of PChlide to Chlide, which uses NADPH as the reductant, PChlide serves as a photochemically active cofactor in the PChlide-LPOR enzymatic complex (Gabruk & Myśliwa-Kurdziel, 2015). 1. There are two classes of phycobilins and they occur only in … The human respiratory system is an efficient system of inspiring and expiring respiratory gases. (C) the interface between α and β subunits from adjacent monomers in the trimer bring PEB chromophores into closer proximity. What are the main pigments of Diatoms. Habitat Some PEBs and PUBs are doubly linked to two cysteines. The database is well cross-referenced to the published reports/literature and related databases. Microalgae are photosynthetic microorganisms that can harvest solar energy by special molecules (chlorophyll, carotenoid, phycobilin) to fix CO2 and produce carbohydrates. They are also found in cyanobacteria. Leszek Fiedor, ... Mariusz Pilch, in Advances in Botanical Research, 2019. In all the types of Chls (Scheme 1), both the C-131 carbonyl oxygen and the peripheral formyl oxygen in Chl b, Chl d and Chl f, are derived from molecular oxygen (Garg, Loughlin, Willows, & Chen, 2017; Porra, Schäfer, Cmiel, Katheder, & Scheer, 1993). PE trimers contain between 6 and 9 additional PBs at additional peripheral positions. Definition of phycobilins in the Definitions.net dictionary. Find out more about some of them,.. The key of these routes is the transfer of electrons to hydrogen evolving enzymes, whether supplied directly from water splitting or indirectly from organic materials such as starch (Kruse and Hankamer, 2010). MP, malathion, and profenofos also reduce the PSII activity in a dose-dependent manner (Tiwari et al., 2016, 2017b; Chakraborty et al., 2017). 5-9). Plants are green due to the presence of certain photo-active pigments present in their photosynthesis factories. Scheme 1. A computational tool “Protomata learner” was utilized to predict amino acid motifs for each family. The four phycobilin chromophores: (a) phycoerythrobilin, (b) phycocyanobilin, (c) phycoviolobilin, and (d) phycourobilin. Chlorophyll is the name given to a range of green related pigments and it is found in most organisms that photosynthesize. Light reactions takes place in the thylakoid membranes that contain light-harvesting antenna, photosystem I (PSI), photosystem II (PSII), cytochrome b6f, and ATP synthase complexes. MgDVP is reduced by 8-vinyl reductase to PChlide, which has been detected at five different levels of the Chl biosynthetic pathway (MgDVP, MgPMe, PChlide a, Chlide a and 8-vinyl Chl a) (Chen, 2014). Upon binding to their respective proteins, light-harvesting pigment-protein complexes are formed that also have characteristic absorptions. Figure 5-9. It is the main phycobilin in the cyanobacteria and also is found in the red algae. Chemically, the insertion of Mg2 + is a difficult reaction with high energy demand (Reid & Hunter, 2004). most common brown algae. It occurs throughout the red algae and in some cyanobacteria. Pigments are colored: the color we see is the net effect of all the light reflecting back at us. (2017a,b) observed an increase in the level of carotenoid contents at 5 and 10 mg L− 1 of MP. Phytochromes are phycobilin-protein pigments involved in floral induction. They are also found in cyanobacteria. Figure 5-8. Phycocyanobilin forms the phycobiliproteins phycocyanin and allophycocyanin, which absorb between 595 and 640 nm and between 650 and 655 nm, respectively. The Phycobilisome has been placed onto the structure of a T. vulcanus Photosystem II (PSII) dimer (PDB code 5B66) situated in the thylakoid membranes, showing the size ratio. Anthocyanins are responsible for the reds, blues, and purples of … Photosystems also have reaction centers P700 (PSI) and P680 (PSII) where specific wavelengths of light can be harvested. The maximum absorption coefficients of both phycobilins exceed 104 m2 mol−1 (Fig. Like the chlorophylls, the phycobilins are tetrapyrroles. Phycobilins, which are bioactive plant compounds, were found to inhibit two coronavirus enzymes. In the 1920s, the German-Australian biochemist Rudolf Lemberg termed these molecules phycobilins because they occur in algae (red algae and blue–green algae, the latter now classified as cyanobacteria; phyco is derived from the Greek for seaweed), but they structurally resemble bile pigments. Red, oxygen; blue, Nitrogen; cyan, carbon; yellow, sulfur. Noam Adir, in Reference Module in Life Sciences, 2020. One of the distinctive features of phycobilins is their water solubility. There are four major bilin types, whose basic absorption character is dependent on the number of conjugated double bonds (CDB): phycocyanobilin (PCB, 7 CDBs, Amax = 590–670 nm), Phycoerythrobilin (PEB, 6 CDBs, Amax = 535–570 nm), Phycobiliviolin (PBV, 5 CDBs, Amax = 570 nm) and Phycourobilin (PUB, 4 CDBs, Amax = 500 nm). 5-8). Photosynthetic autotrophs have pigments that absorb light energy to synthesize complex organic material from inorganic sources. Phycobilins are covalently linked to specific binding proteins, forming phycobiliproteins, which associate to form highly ordered complexes called phycobilisomes that constitute the primary light-harvesting structures in the microorganisms like green algae and red … Furthermore, the type of photosynthetic pigments is the main difference between red brown and green algae. MP is considered as an extremely hazardous OP insecticide, caused a significant reduction in the chlorophyll content and PSII efficiency at the higher doses (20 and 30 mg L− 1) but insignificant or very moderate effects were observed up to 10 mg L− 1 of insecticide in cyanobacterium Fischerella sp. (A) The Monomer. this group of algae share many characteristics with land plants. Tiwari et al. PHYCOBILINS: “A group of red or blue photosynthetic water soluble pigments”They are open-chain tetrapyrroles. The susceptibility of the cyanobacterial pigments, viz., chlorophyll, carotenoids, and phycobilins to the higher doses of OP pesticides such as MP, malathion, profenofos, chlorpyrifos (CP), and dimethoate has been reported in several cyanobacterial strains (Tiwari et al., 2015, 2017a,b; Chakraborty et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2011; Mohapatra et al., 1997). Applications that can show important enhancement with regard to biohydrogen productivities in microalgae (Lopes Pinto et al., 2002; Mathews and Wang, 2009; Oncel and Kose, 2014; Torzillo et al., 2014) include the proper changes in several culture parameters such as adjusting salinity, percentages of sparged gasses (CO2, Ar), nutrient levels, illumination patterns as well as partial pressure of head space. It is not intended to provide medical, legal, or any other professional advice. Ultrafast or single molecule spectroscopic methods may reveal transient light-driven structural changes in the future. Phycobilins are complex photoreceptor pigments – open-chain tetrapyrroles that are structurally related to mammalian bile pigments. Also dimethylsulfide/dimethylsulfoxide (Sunda et al., 2002) and sulfated polysaccharides (Tannin-Spitz et al., 2005) contribute to the antioxidant pool of microalgae. chlorophyta. Photorespiration is an unfavorable process that decreases the efficiency of photosynthesis in microalgae, because it consumes energy but does not produce any sugars. All of these proteins have high quantum yields of fluorescence that can be exploited not only to probe their mechanism of energy transfer in photosynthesis but also in antibody labeling applications.53, Due to the ease of detection of fluorescence from phycobilisomes, time-resolved emission spectroscopy has been a primary technique by which the rate and mechanism of energy flow from these antenna systems to the RC have been explored. These enzymes are responsible for covalent ligation of chromophores (phycobilins) to phycobiliproteins (PBPs). Singlet oxygen, and free radicals in general, are toxic because they can randomly energize other molecules. Structure of two phycobilins that act as important accessory pigments. lmga1. In eukaryotes such as red algae, they are found in the stroma of the chloroplast. Thus, three equivalent PB dimers are formed within the trimer. At this branching point, two different divalent metal ions can be inserted into the macrocycle binding pocket; it is either the Fe2 + ion, inserted by Fe chelatase to yield heme, or the Mg2 + ion, inserted by Mg chelatase in the first committed step in Chl biosynthesis (Yaronskaya & Grimm, 2006). Illusions are the perceptions and sensory data obtained from situations in which human error prevents us from seeing the.. Neurons generate electric signals that they pass along to the other neurons or target tissues. As is the case for other pigments, the greater the number of double bonds in conjugation in the phycobilins, the longer is the wavelength for λmax and the lower is the energy involved for electronic transitions. PBPs are the critical building blocks of phycobilisomes that are the major light-harvesting systems of cyanobacteria and red algae. Colors as in A. Phycobiliproteins are water-soluble proteins present in cyanobacteria and certain algae (rhodophytes, cryptomonads, glaucocystophytes) which capture light energy, which is then passed on to chlorophylls during photosynthesis. Chl d, in which the C-3 vinyl group is transformed to a formyl group is synthesized by a P-450 type enzyme (Allakhverdiev et al., 2016). Biochemistry Any of a group of red or blue photosynthetic pigments present in some algae. Meaning of phycobilins. It should be noted here that similar PBs serve as the chromophore of a class of photoreceptors in cyanobacteria called phytochromes (Rockwell and Lagarias, 2019). Any information here should not be considered absolutely correct, complete, and up-to-date. What are the main pigments of Red algae? Phycoerythrin is reddish because it absorbs green and has at least one main band between 530 nm and 570 nm (absorption spectrum in Fig. This backward reaction is shared with the Chl b biodegradation pathway. Phycobilins are water-soluble pigments found in the stroma of chloroplast organelles that are present only in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta. phycobilin synonyms, phycobilin pronunciation, phycobilin translation, English dictionary definition of phycobilin. In contrast to carotenoids that are insoluble to water, phycobilins are water-soluble proteins. On the other hand, photorespiration is a light-independent reaction that converts organic carbon back to CO2. Whether there exists a direct pathway for this to occur or an indirect route by way of PSII remains unclear.52,54–56, Park S. Nobel, in Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology (Fifth Edition), 2020. This prelude is the first step to understand metabolic activities for biohydrogen generation. Anil Kumar, Praffulla Kumar Arya, in Advances in Cyanobacterial Biology, 2020. Phycoviolobilin combines with phycocyanobilin to form phycoerythrocyanin, which absorbs between 570 and 575 nm. Other articles where Phycobilin is discussed: blue-green algae: …yellowish carotenoids, the blue pigment phycobilin, and, in some species, the red pigment phycoerythrin. The coexistence of two enzymes that catalyze a single reaction seems to be a relic of the evolutionary transition from anaerobic to aerobic metabolism. Each color is a different monomer. holdfast. In rare cases, the propionic moiety can be esterified with geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (PP) or a shorter chain farnesyl-PP. multicelllular algae that has a reproductive cycle, many with cell walls and perform photosynthesis. A third route other than these light-dependent routes is the dark fermentation of the decarboxylated pyruvate from glycolysis by pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (Beer et al., 2009; Maness et al., 2009; Ghysels and Franck, 2010; Torzillo et al., 2014). Public databases have poorly annotated phycobilin lyases sequences. The second route is the indirect biophotolysis where the electrons from glycolysis are transferred to the linear electron transport chain and utilized only by a PSI active hydrogen evolution pathway. The biosynthetic pathway of Chls involves multiple enzymatic steps and several of the initial ones are shared with other tetrapyrroles, i.e., phycobilins and hemes. Phycobilins are found in red algae and cryptomonads. ‘Unlike any other flagellate algae, they contain phycobilins as accessory photosynthetic pigments, as do red algae and cyanobacteria.’ The biosynthetic pathway of Chls involves multiple enzymatic steps and several of the initial ones are shared with other tetrapyrroles, i.e., Porra, Schäfer, Cmiel, Katheder, & Scheer, 1993, Genetic Engineering of Microalgae for Production of Value-added Ingredients, Freshwater Algae of North America (Second Edition). Any member of a class of intensely colored pigments found in some algae that absorb light for photo­synthesis. The first ones were likely in the form of sponges. Phycobilins usually have their major absorption bands from 520 nm to 670 nm, with a relatively small Soret band in the UV (Fig. These pigments are higher in concentration in many cyanobacteria and red algae than are the chlorophylls and are responsible for the color of certain species (Falkowski and Raven, 2007; Kirk, 2010). Molecular representations of different structural levels of the Phycobilisome. 1K views Phycobilins are water soluble accessory pigments present in the cyanobacteria n red algae. In prokaryotes such as cyanobacteria, they are found in the cytoplasm. In the last few years, there has been renewed interest in microalgae as commercial sources of these and other HVABs, driven in part by the attempts to develop commercially viable biofuels from microalgae. What are the main pigments of Blue Green Algae? (B) Phycoerythrin (αβ)3 trimer. © 2001-2021 BiologyOnline. Absorption spectra of phycoerythrin from a red alga and phycocyanin from a cyanobacterium in aqueous solutions. The picture at the right shows the two classes of phycobilins which may be extracted from these "algae". Thus, chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs … Unlike all other LHCs, there are no other complimentary chromophores such as chlorophylls or carotenoids bound to the PBPs. The numbers above the arrows indicate the key enzymes (listed in the box) involved in the biosynthetic pathway of chlorophyll. Differences in the extent of π-electron conjugation are responsible for the distinct absorption spectral properties and coloration of the chromophores.52 Phycoerythrobilin appears red, phycocyanobilin is blue, phycoviolobilin is purple, and phycourobilin is yellow colored. These assemblies containing 300 to 800 phycobilins are organized into phycobilisomes, which are about 40 nm in diameter and are associated with the outer (stromal) surfaces of lamellar membranes in cyanobacteria and red algae, where they function as the main accessory pigments. Because of the other pigments, however, many species … See more. Phycobilins; These classes are further divided into various sub-classes. Examples of accessory pigments are carotenoids and phycobilins. They occur covalently bound to proteins with molecular masses of 30 kDa to 35 kDa. Their pigments act as an accessory, thus the name accessory pigments, in a way that they do not transfer light energy directly to the photosynthetic pathway but to the primary pigment, chlorophyll. The light energy they absorb is essential for the production of organic molecules by the process of photosynthesis. 5-9; note the great structural similarity between the phycobilins and the chromophore for phytochrome in Fig. The biosynthesis of Chl f starts from Chl a and resembles that of Chl b (further information can be found in chapters “Biosynthesis of chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls in green bacteria” and “Chlorophylls d and f: Synthesis, occurrence, light-harvesting, and pigment organization in chlorophyll-binding protein complexes” of this volume by Thweatt et al., and Chen, respectively). Phycobilins are covalently linked via a thioether bond to phycobiliproteins to form water-soluble pigment-protein complexes that can aggregate to form phycobilisomes, which are supercomplexes associated with the thylakoid membrane that funnel light energy to the photosynthetic RC. Define phycobilin. 46–52 Like Chl, the fundamental structure of phycobilins consists of a tetrapyrrole unit, but rather than being arranged in a ring and coordinated to a central metal, the four pyrroles form an open chain (Figure 6). Noun 1. phycobilin - water-soluble proteinaceous pigments found in red algae and cyanobacteria pigment - dry coloring material (especially a powder to be … Thus, tuning of absorption and emission or photoprotection properties of the PBS are the result of the unique combination of different bilin forms, protein environment and level of assembly. The major steps chemical formulae of the key intermediates of chlorophyll biosynthetic pathways. OEC – oxygen evolving complex. Hydrogen plays an important role in photosynthesis as being the vehicle in the photosynthetic transport grid where plants and microalgae can utilize water as the source of hydrogen (Antal et al., 2011; Polander and Barry, 2012). Different routes that are active in the hydrogen evolution process of microalgae are related to the dissipation of excess electrons of the electron transport chain when the main electron acceptors CO2 and O2 are absent or the other processes like Calvin cycle, photorespiration, and Mehler reactions used as sinks are blocked (Ghysels and Franck, 2010; Antal et al., 2011).
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